Enjoy video clips and transcripts of more than 70 interviews with leading astronomy figures from around the world taken directly from footage of 400 Years of the Telescope. Click on an image to view the video. http://www.400years.org/video/video.php 2012-02-04T15:03:28+01:00 text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=15 With Nelson’s vision and the advances in computer and sensor technology and actuator technology, we are using computers and sensors to constantly adjust the mirrors to compensate for the forces of gravity, to compensate for thermal effects and to adjust for everything that can keep the mirrors from being perfect. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=12 Adaptive optics uses a bright source coming from the atmosphere, originally a bright star to go out to something called a wave front sensor that tells us how the atmosphere is defocusing, introducing a stigmatism and other variables into this perfect star image that is hitting the upper atmosphere. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=17 You know Keck has been really active in discovering planets around nearby stars, and 20 years ago there were no planets known outside of our solar system. So I would predict the next great discovery with Keck is going to be a planet with a mass very similar to the Earth, and I think that is really going to galvanize not only astronomy community interest but public interest in habitable zones in planetary systems and in life elsewhere in the universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=18 Ground based telescopes offer a number of advantages over space-based telescopes. We are already getting resolutions with the Keck telescope that are significantly higher, two-to-four times higher, than with the Hubble space telescope. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=19 I got very interested in astronomy as a junior high school and high school student. I built a radio telescope in my own back yard. And I was very fortunate because my school district would send people to a place called Talcat Mountain science center during on the weekends where they would get people who were interested in science from a variety of schools, and pair them with scientists and engineers to work on special projects. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=20 Active optics compensate for slowly varying influences on the telescope optical system, so the mirrors and the mechanical systems that hold the mirrors into place. So these change rather slowly over the course of the night with the direction of telescopes pointed or with temperature. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=21 The Keck telescopes are the two largest fully stirrable optical infrared telescopes in the world. They were the first of the new generation of large telescopes. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=22 How do stars form and evolve? How does the galaxy form and evolve nearby galaxies? What are the real influences? What makes one galaxy a spiral and another an elliptical? What makes one star live a hundred thousand years and another live sixteen billion years? text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=23 Jerry Nelson developed a revolutionary technique for instead of having one mirror as all telescopes had before Keck and following the prescription of say, the classic telescopes like the Palomar 200 inch, the Mt. Wilson 100 inch, and the Kitt Peak and Cerra Tololo four meters to make it much more achievable in terms of issues like weight, in terms of cost to break the mirror into segments. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=24 The 30-meter telescope plans to use segmented mirror technology just like Keck, and between Keck and 30 meter telescope we have a great interchange of technical knowledge on topics like controls systems, for keeping the mirrors precisely positioned, working on illuminizing the segments and adaptive optic systems. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=25 I think the public is becoming more and more interested in our work. I can see it over my career very easily, never mind over the four hundred years of astronomy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=13 If Pluto is a planet, then several other objects that have been found out in the Kuiper Belt where Pluto orbits which are as big as Pluto, maybe a little bigger, maybe a little smaller, should also be planets. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=26 My hero in science, like a lot of people is Albert Einstein. I think I just admire the way that he was able to do so much himself working as a single person rather than as a big team and also the way he completely changed our conception of very basic things like space and time. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=27 So nature makes stars. We know that. We knew that it made planets in our solar system but we didn’t know for a fact that it made planets any where else, although as I said, we had all of this evidence that it probably did. And then there’s the possibility of making objects that are in between stars and planets. These are called brown dwarves. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=28 The word "planet" is actually defined in several different arenas which unfortunately don’t have much to do with each other and that’s part of the reason that this is a confusing argument. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=29 Extra solar planets, planets around other stars, were not known until about 15 years ago. But before that we actually had a pretty good idea how planets formed. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=30 The question is, is Pluto a planet? How small can something be and still be a planet? Then there were arguments at the upper end which was how massive can I make a planet before it becomes a brown dwarf. This has been a very interesting debate in the astronomical community. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=31 The exciting discovery was that the young stars like the stars I was studying showed up as being very little dimmed by dust and yet they had a big infrared excess around them so there was a lot of dust there and really the only way that could work is if that dust was concentrated in a plane. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=32 The definition of planet has undergone big changes in the past. The earth was not a planet until Copernicus and Galileo came along. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=33 The trick astronomers were able to use to tell that the dust was actually in a disk form rather than a cloud form is that if you surround a star with a cloud of dust that dust will actually absorb some of the visible light from the star and make it look dimmer and redder than it would otherwise look. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=34 So if you lived in one of these systems near the star, you would get essentially the same kind of thing that we have here in our own solar system. That is to say the region of sky where planets would form would be in a band in the sky just like all our planets move in a band around our sun. And because these disks form along with the star, the whole cloud that makes both the star and the disk collapses together so everything’s moving in the same direction. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=35 Like many astronomers, I think I got interested in astronomy as a kid. I can remember being very interested by the time I was 7 or 8 years old. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=10 I think frankly a lesson for us is, Hubble was not just designed to be fixed in space, but it was designed to be improved. So the same astronauts that went up and fixed it could go up and could swap instruments out, and improve it. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=41 There are so many, I couldn’t pick just one. I could mention some names, obviously Galileo was a tremendous inspiration to us all, as was Hubble... text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=42 Nowadays we can create detectors, which can capture essentially all of the light falling on them and record it, which is an enormous advance. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=43 It’s a little bit of an accident. I loved astronomy as a kid. I had a telescope, and then I made a telescope, my father actually got me started and got me a kit... text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=44 Hubble, frankly, didn’t belong to the astronomers at that point. It was publicly funded, yes, we use it for research, yes, it is great, it is the greatest of these instruments, but really we had been so successful in engaging the public in this mission that everybody thought they owned it and they couldn’t understand why it was going to be taken away from them. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=45 Astronomy is part of the human consciousness or awareness that’s we’re in something bigger than just ourselves. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=46 First of all, we know we can predict with very good – we believe we can predict certain discoveries that should be made which will be tremendously exciting, if we can build the technology. In the case of the James Webb, it’s designed to be able to look back beyond the beginning of galaxies. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=47 Imagine putting a rather heavy school bus in orbit, and then being able, once it’s in orbit, to point it anywhere in the sky to a tiny fraction of a second of arc, and stabilize it for an hour as it’s whizzing around, or more as it’s whizzing around the earth at 17,000 miles an hour. That was a remarkable technological feat. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=48 In some sense the money was a problem, because people like to do new things, Hubble is this old thing – yes, it’s old but nothing wrong with it – still the best thing in astronomy, still that way, and it’s going to get better. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=49 We thought, people thought, that galaxies as we see them, these fuzzy things, were probably always like that. As they emerged from the soup after the Big Bang, they were large extended things. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=50 Hubble’s big impact in many areas is being able to demonstrate unequivocally that we understand what’s going on whereas prior to Hubble we only had an inkling. That I think by itself, the totality of that understanding, makes it one of the greatest instruments ever. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=51 Now the politics of the space telescope are a little more intricate than the politics of some other things, because in addition to convincing the government that you want to finance it, you really have to have the astronomical community – however that’s defined – broadly behind the program. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=52 NASA, to their credit, is a very can-do agency. NASA and the people associated with the Space Program are just extraordinary individuals, and so NASA decided pretty quickly that they had to do something, they had to rescue the Hubble. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=53 In the case of Hubble it was the same thing, they said ‘we will put a large telescope in space’ – they had some pretty good ideas about how to do it, but there were many details left to be worked out. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=54 The more I looked at Hubble, the more I became convinced that this was a modern miracle, something we had to keep going, had to have up there. You see it time and again, in the way that the public reacts to the Hubble. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=2 In the 1860s, Henry Draper in the United States – on the Hudson River in New York State, discovered a way of making a mirror out of glass, and so you’d just have the concave surface of glass instead of speculum metal, and he discovered a way of depositing a thin coating of silver on it, and so it would take the curve of the figure. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=3 Basically, the development of the telescope can be thought of as a race between the mirror and the lens, and we didn’t know which one was going to win. Both had major technical problems, and both had major advantages. They were different. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=4 In the 18th century a man named John Dolland, and also his son Peter Dolland, together made what they called achromatic reflectors using that. Achromatic means – “A” means no and “chromatic” means color, so it’s a no color refractor – and that was a huge boost to the development of the refracting telescope. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=5 The most famous makers of refracting telescopes, that made them the world’s largest five times over, was the father and sons team Alvan Clark and Sons. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=55 The key telescopes that changed the technology of the telescope. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=56 My name is Trudy E. Bell. I’m a science journalist and the former editor of the journal of the antique telescope society. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=57 The lens telescope and the mirror telescope, developed in parallel, at the same time. And there were a lot of technical issues – technology issues, it wasn’t at all clear which was going to be better. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=58 The main problem that Herschel and also Lord Ross had with their mirrors is they had to be repolished so often, especially in the foggy, grimy atmosphere of industrializing England. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=59 Franhoffer was very interested in optics from a very young age, apprenticed to a spectacle-maker, and then went on because he wanted to make the largest telescopes in the world, and the best telescopes in the world, and he did. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=60 The main problem with using a single lens as Hoegens and Galileo and the early people was that it acted like a prism, so you ended up getting fringes of color around any object that you were looking at at a distance, particularly bright objects like stars. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=61 I just became so fascinated with these megapieces of engineering, and all the people who had their hearts broken by them and had their reputations made by them, it’s so much a human story, as much as anything else, and they’re so beautiful, these instruments are just works of art. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=62 in the late 18th century you had William Herschel in England with his 20-foot telescope, and 40-foot telescope with a Herschelian focus. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=16 The electromagnetic spectrum includes the very short wavelengths, very high energetic waves. Gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet waves. Visible waves, the only ones we can see with our eyes. Infrared. Then the radio are the very long waves, stretching from a few millimeters out to many, many meters. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=63 What is perhaps surprising about the molecules that have been detected is that so many of them are very familiar to us. Carbon monoxide – car exhaust. Alcohol. Ethanol. Formaldehyde – embalming fluid. Formic acid – what stings if an ant bites you. mercaptan – what smells if a skunk skunks you. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=64 The Green Bank telescope is a section of a parabola 100 meters across, weighs 16 million pounds. It’s one of the largest moveable structures on land. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=65 Radio telescopes have changed over the course of the past 50-70 years, but basically the modern radio telescopes all consist of a reflecting mirror which focuses the image in the receiver. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=66 Karl Jansky was a radio engineer. He was pulled off of this project by the telephone company who were more interested in practical matters. Although some astronomers had heard of this discovery, astronomers were not radio engineers, radio engineers were not astronomers, and it took a very unusual, iconoclastic individual, Mr. Rieber, to follow up on this. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=67 The astronomer who saw the potential most clearly was Professor Jan Oort in the Netherlands. It was the wartime occupation in the Netherlands gave him plenty of time to think and he set one of his graduate students the task of asking the question, "Would there be a discreet spectral line, a discreet tone coming from space, from a known source?" text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=68 When a site is sought for an optical telescope you want a site which is dark. That means far from cities, far from city lights. When a site is sought for a radio telescope you want the sky also to be dark. Darkness in radio terms means free from interference. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=69 Radioastronomy was the opening of a new scientific window. Whenever you open a new window you’re bound to be surprised. It can’t be otherwise. Serendipitous discoveries, surprises, are what happens. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=70 An optical telescope has a mirror, which reflects the incoming radiation to focus, which is a camera, an electronic camera. A radio telescope has a parabolic surface which reflects the incoming radio radiation to focus which is collected by a radio camera, a receiver, and it further processes the images from that reception. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=71 The signals from space enters the Earth’s vicinity and those that are lucky enough to land on the surface of the GBT are reflected up to the focus. At the focus there’s a collection of receivers depending on which wavelength the astronomer wants to observe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=72 In all branches of science, serendipitous discoveries occur. They can’t be predicted but they have certain things in common, and one is that, like Jansky, the people understand the equipment they’re dealing with and are prepared to accept the unexpected. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=11 ALMA is a giant array of radio telescopes which will be used as an interferometer. It will have at least 66 radio telescopes and hopefully up to 80. By using many of these telescopes separated over the ground, we can attain in the sky extremely high resolutions. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=73 We are close to San Pedro de Atacama which is now a very fashionable place to go for vacation because it’s a fantastic nature. There it was possible to find this plateau at the height of 5,000 meters. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=74 The angular resolution that you will obtain with the area depends on the distance between the various antennas. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=75 We are in Chajnantor. We are at an altitude of 5,000 meters on a very large plateau, which has been selected for the construction of ALMA. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=76 Einstein alone in his little office, could come up with so many important discoveries. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=77 I think astronomers all over the world in the last decade were realizing that the next important project in astronomy was going to be a very large, millimeter, sub-millimeter interferometer. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=78 The biggest surprises are the ones I cannot guess. I’m sure there will be some of those. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=79 I always loved to look at the sky and I was always interested in knowing, but no, I didn’t think from early on that I would be an astronomer. It happened. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=80 The aim of interferometry is to obtain resolutions on the sky comparable to what you would get with a telescope the size like the separation between your telescopes. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=81 I think astronomy in general, and the big discoveries we are doing now in particular can do a lot to change the lives of a lot of people because we are studying the universe and it’s not just our universe, it’s everybody’s universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=82 2009 has been declared by the International Astronomical Union the International Year of Astronomy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=84 2009 es el Año Internacional de Astronomia, cuatro ciento años despues de la primera observación de Galileo hizo con su pequeño telescopio sobre la luna. La Union Astronomica Internacional invita a toda la humanidad a mirar al universo. 2009, el universo para que lo descubres. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=85 We are at the ALMA operations support facility. We are 2,900 meters altitude on the Chajnantor mountain and you know that the ALMA facility will in fact operate much higher, at 5,000 meters. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=86 The whole world got together to construct ALMA. It’s a very important facility which should bring complete new knowledge about the universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=87 ALMA will work at the millimeter and sub-millimeter range, which means the wavelengths, these are microwaves and their wavelength is of that size, between one millimeter to a tenth of a millimeter, .3 millimeters, actually, for ALMA. This is a wavelength that has been least explored in astronomy these days, and so the potential for discovery is absolutely enormous. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=88 In addition to looking at nearby regions or star formations also to study the composition of these clouds which will contain complicated molecules which are probably the first elements to build life, ALMA will also be capable of doing very important discoveries in the very far away universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=517 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=518 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=519 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=520 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=521 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=522 Transcript in progress. text/html 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http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=550 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=551 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=552 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=553 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=554 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=555 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=123 In the last few years, dark energy, dark matter have come into play and we realized that the universe is extending at a greater rate than we thought. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=124 There’s something extraordinary going on right now and all of us that are alive right now are going to be the generation that was alive when we first discovered planets outside of our own solar system and that is as big of a discovery that I can sort of wrap my head around. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=125 There are two telescopes: the twin Gemini telescopes we like to call them. One is here in Mauna Kea where we’re standing right now and one is in central Chile, on western South America, on the coast of South America. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=126 We’re all astronomers a little bit because we all look up and we see the moon and stars and the planets up in the sky. I think everybody feels a little bit of awe because of that stuff. Until the invention of the telescope our eyes were the windows into our universe so we were limited by the capability of our eyes. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=127 This is the beauty of working in the infrared is that what you see up there is not really what you get. Our eyes are attuned to visible light. We see all the colors of the rainbow. Well, there’s a lot of other colors that we can’t see with our eyes, but our cameras can see them. In the near infrared, that’s very similar to night vision goggles. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=128 I think a lot of people make the mistake of thinking the sky is static and it doesn’t change. It’s very dynamic up there and it gives you a perspective check. People who study astronomy as a hobby or as a profession, have a very unique perspective on our place in the universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=129 The laser guide star is actually a laser that’s attached to our telescope and we propagate that laser from the top of the telescope about 70 miles straight up into the air. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=130 This is a transitional time in astronomy as far as telescopes go. I think some folks would argue that it’s always a transitional time because we tend to plan and build bigger telescopes and telescopes with different capabilities. But right now what’s happening is the big telescopes now are like Gemini, Keck and Subaru, and VLT, these are 8 – 10 meter telescopes. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=131 The first thing we wish to do is look at the first sources of light in the universe. The very earliest galaxies that formed, the very first clusters of stars that formed from the very first stars. In order to do that, we have to use infrared light as I’ve said. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=132 And finally we come to the fourth major science goal, which would be planetary systems and possibly the origins of life in the cosmos. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=133 Transcript in progress text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=134 We are definitely looking for the signatures of life, in planets and the atmospheres of planets; there’s no question that is a major goal of much of what NASA astrophysics is doing. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=135 I have to say that many of us in astronomy were begotten by mentors. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=136 I truthfully think that the questions that drive us to build a great observatory such as the James Webb Space Telescope, are the fundamental questions that you ask yourself when you sit on a hillside and look into the sky. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=137 I’d like to think that we’d be smart enough to hire Galileo into the project and I’m almost positive that Galileo would be smart enough to join the team. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=138 I would like to say, to those of you who have great dreams, write them down because I think you will meet them. I think they will be greeting you in 10 or 20 years. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=139 Transcript in progress text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=140 The James Webb Space Telescope, or JWST, or Webb, is one of the series of great observatories. These are observatories designed to look deeply into the universe at different wave bands or wavelengths. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=141 The real reason I’m an astronomer is that I haven’t figured out what I really, really want to narrow down my life to do, so I figure if I have a job that allows me to have the entire universe to play with, I really can’t complain, right? text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=142 We have had women astronomers for well over a hundred years, certainly contributing, but the big issue is they haven’t always gotten credit for their contributions, right? And truthfully it is a little bit easier to lead from the front than it is to lead from behind. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=143 This is a telescope that revolutionized the world, literally. Completely changed our perception of the world that we live in. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=144 We’re living in a particularly exciting time now in cosmology. Not only do we have a universe that is expanding, as Hubble had discovered, but the expansion appears to be speeding up – it’s accelerating. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=145 One of the first women astronomers was Carolyn Herschel, and she and her brother William Herschel in the 18th century, were the ones responsible for discovering the planet Uranus. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=146 Edwin Hubble, here at the 100-inch telescope, took a series of photographic plates, large glass photographic plates, and he noticed that there were objects on the plates that were changing in their brightness – pinpoints of light not unlike other stars that he was photographing. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=147 The Giant Magellan Telescope is an ambitious new project following in Hale’s footsteps; in a sense it’s the next generation of optical telescopes on the ground. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=148 There were a number of women who were working at the Harvard College Observatory at the turn of the last century, and at that time in fact women were not allowed to get PhDs in astronomy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=149 Leavitt was studying objects we now know to be other galaxies very nearby to ours, the small and the large Magellanic cloud. And she discovered that there were objects that were changing in their brightness. This is now known as the Leavitt Period Luminosity Relation. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=150 I would like to encourage you in this year of 2009, celebrating 400 years of the telescope, to take a moment and get away from city lights, get beyond the cities where many of us have grown up and have never had a chance to look at a dark night sky. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=151 To obtain the best astronomical observations, it’s desirable to get to high altitude, get away from city lights, find a dry site where the atmosphere is very stable, and the reason for that of course is the clarity of an image that you get is improved if the atmosphere is not in a lot of turbulent motion. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=152 I think personally I was very lucky to come along at just the right time in astronomy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=153 I was interested in astronomy from a very early age, I was interested in all science from a very early age, but I can probably date exactly when I became hooked, and that was – I was probably seven years old. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=154 What’s exciting about super massive black holes is not just that they are in the centers of galaxies, but they seem to be connected with the formation and evolution of stars in the galaxy that they are sitting in. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=155 In this Golden Age of astronomy, when you’re trying to investigate a problem, you don’t have to just go about it with one telescope or in one wavelength region of light. You can use a whole array of telescopes and really study the problem from many different angles. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=156 The age of ground based telescopes is not over, even though we have wonderful satellite telescopes that detect x-ray radiation and ultraviolet radiation. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=157 I really got involved in astronomy research in college doing summer research programs and that’s when I really decided that I wanted to do astronomy as a profession. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=158 Light comes in a spectrum of energies and wavelengths. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=159 So what about all the other super massive black holes that are sitting there? How can we figure out how big they are and how they’re affecting the rest of the galaxy if they’re not producing any radiation from swallowing gas? text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=160 There are super massive black holes lurking in the centers of most galaxies, but we can only really see the signatures of these black holes in a handful of them. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=161 The greatest discoveries that happen from telescopes are completely unexpected by the entire astronomy community who designed the telescope in the first place. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=162 I’d have to say that my hero in astronomy – though he was not a career astronomer - but he was the writer, Isaac Asimov. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=163 Solar astronomers believe that many of the mysteries of the formation of magnetic structures on the sun are in these small magnetic elements. And, so we want to build an even larger solar telescope that we call the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope – or simply the ATST. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=164 Solar astronomy, of course, concentrates on a single object, the sun. But then the sun is not entirely unique in the galaxy of stars, though it’s not exactly the most typical star in the galaxy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=165 Einstein’s general theory of relativity had an interesting prediction, namely that light rays passing near the sun, passing through the strong gravitational field of the sun would be bent, and this led to the prediction that the apparent positions of stars as their light passed near the sun would shift. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=166 George Ellery Hale was the founder of Mt. Wilson Observatory in the early 1900s, where he was to carry out fundamental experiments in solar observational astrophysics. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=167 Hi, I’m Mark Giampapa, an astronomer, and I’d like to extend to you on behalf of the National Solar Observatory, our greetings and my own personal greetings and thank you for your participation in the International Year of Astronomy. And I want you to always remember to look up. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=168 Behind me is the McMath-Pierce telescope, the world’s largest solar telescope. It has a primary mirror of 1.6 meters in diameter, which is nearly twice the diameter of currently operating solar telescopes. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=169 Among all the astronomical objects that we observe, the sun is certainly the most important astronomical object to all of humankind. The sun supplies the energy for life on Earth, to sustain our lives on the Earth, and it’s the driver of the climate on Earth. And so it’s extremely important for us to understand all aspects of the variability of the sun. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=170 Transcript in progress text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=171 Galileo was among four initial users of the telescope, and observed sunspots with his newly invented telescope. And that really marked the beginning of solar astronomy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=172 Well, astronomy is the study of the stars, planets, and basically the contents of the cosmos. Their composition, their evolution, and the large-scale structure of the universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=173 I became an astronomer because I really enjoyed physics and mathematics as a kid, and especially in high school. I found though that I tended to like the physics problems in space more than the physics problems in the lab. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=174 In Copernicus’ day, one didn’t want to be too radical an innovator. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=175 Most of the data that Copernicus used came from Ptolemy in ancient times from the second century A.D. But he wanted to check this up with current planetary data. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=176 Copernicus’ system had no observational proof for the motion of the Earth. That was an idea in the mind’s eye. A theory pleasing to the mind. But it had a coherence that would ultimately be very persuasive. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=177 The printing of Copernicus’ de Revolutions took many months and I think that the original first pages printed were sent to him and then the next group and so on that he could actually proofread the sections of the book as they came to him. The last part to be printed as the so-called front-matter — the title page — this apology anonymously put in by the Lutheran theologian Andreas Oseander, the dedication to the pope and so on must have been the last part that Copernicus finally received on his death bed. Just that section. Most of the book he had already seen. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=178 Most astronomers in the generations immediately following 1543 when Copernicus published his book, thought of the book as a recipe book. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=179 Galileo said a lot of people were having trouble with the Copernican system because if the Earth is whizzing around the Sun, how can it keep the Moon in tow? text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=180 I think intuitively, most people believe in a very solid, fixed earth and it takes some forcing of the imagination to conceive of it as spinning and going around the Sun. So intellectually, we know that it’s going around the Sun. In our gut feeling, we know its going around the Sun. In our gut feeling, we believe it's solidly fixed. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=181 In the process of looking at these plates, some of the astute women like Henrietta Levitt noticed that the stars were not always of the same brightness; that is, certain individual ones. She became a great discoverer of these so called variable stars. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=182 As a result, he started looking very, very carefully at individual stars because double stars offered a possibility of finding the parallax, the motion of the stars due to the Earth’s own motion. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=183 It wasn’t until a few generations later, until Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei began to argue for the physical reality of the heliocentric system and they began to put forward a variety of arguments that made the whole thing seem much more intellectually respectable to think about and to believe in. And they are the two giants who really brought about the acceptance of the heliocentric theory; but this is decades after Copernicus had published his book. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=184 Kepler was truly a remarkable scientist because, unlike his contemporaries who thought astronomy was handled strictly by geometry, he wanted to do it with physics. He wanted to have a physical reason for what was happening. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=185 Literalistic interpretation will cause you to run into trouble. This was a big issue at the time of Galileo, for example. After all, Psalm 104 says the Lord God laid the foundation of the Earth that it not be moved forever. Many of the Catholic theologians said that ruled out the moving of the Earth in the Copernican system. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=186 When Copernicus gave the idea that it was the Sun, and not the Earth that was at the middle, that the earth was racing around the sun every year and spinning on its axis, it seemed the height of ridiculousness. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=187 There’s a wonderful story about King Alfonso in the 13th century looking over the shoulders of his astronomers who were making tables for the prediction of planets. King Alfonso is supposed to have said if he had been around at creation, he could have given the good Lord some hints, the idea being that the system seemed so complicated. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=188 Ptolemy’s view of the cosmos was to use circles. After all, circles are wonderful for celestial motions because they go on, round and round forever. No stopping and starting. A circle is the obvious way to try to get that kind of motion, and he was very clever in how he combined the circles. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=189 Science is modeling the universe. It is a way of making a kind of map that you can then use to predict the future, the future of motion of things, let’s say. Or, if you’re talking about gravity, predict how a spacecraft can go to Saturn. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=190 You don’t discover the Stonehenge; you build Stonehenge to commemorate the discovery. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=191 The biggest technological change is one, the replacement of the photographic plate by electronic detectors because the photographic emulsion before it’s developed is white. It’s a wonderful reflector. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=192 You have to understand that the Renaissance was a time of many new things; the exploration of the New World, the discovery of printing, religious upheaval. In many ways there was a newness in looking at the universe and Galileo’s telescope observations were part of that. It brought a fresh perspective. It made people much more open to accepting a cosmos that was different from what had been grown up during the Middle Ages. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=193 And have been one ever since. I was an undergraduate in a small college in Indiana and I came out here during the summers and worked here at the observatory. When I applied to graduate school, the only place I applied to was Harvard, which by current standards would be insane. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=196 I think that the techniques of adaptive optics are already of interest for improving individuals’ vision because you can easily imagine compensating for the blur on a hot day. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=197 The best interpretation of the suite of data that we have in hand right now is that the stuff of which this telescope is made, of which you and I are made, ordinary atoms that we learned about in high school chemistry class comprises about four percent of the total matter and energy density of the universe that we live in. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=198 Our eyeballs allow us to reconstruct the depth of the scene that we are seeing because they are spaced far enough apart that they give us a third dimensional view. We’re not, these aren’t nearly far enough apart to be interesting at the distance of astronomical objects. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=199 But the thrill of the first time I went when I entered graduate school and got to ride in the cage at the focus underneath the five-meter at Palomar, which was the world’s largest telescope, and look in an eye-piece and see a galaxy that looked as beautiful as a photograph. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=200 The GMT will be a telescope like this one but symmetric, filled in. So we have two eight meter dishes, these mirrors, and there’s about eight meters in between them. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=201 There’s lots to do and this telescope will work frequently in a mode where you use the two sides in parallel with identical or similar instruments to get twice as much information on the same field of view. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=202 Somehow as human beings we are innately curious. We really want to understand more and more about the world we live in and our place in the broader universe in which this planet, sun and solar system sits. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=203 This is an extraordinary international partnership that has conceived and financed and made successful this telescope project. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=204 I hope they realize that we are beings that were wired to live on a planet that has a dark night, and that if we don’t protect that darkness and allow us, and children and grandchildren to at least experience it in special places, if not everywhere we live, then we will have lost a critical aspect of our being here. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=205 So a very promising line of investigation, which is already going forward is looking at the sound waves that rattled through the universe in its earliest moments and then got frozen in the matter when the radiation was allowed to free-stream and the matter was interacting with itself. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=206 It is all about the science. The astronomers are eager to find out about how planet systems were formed around stars. They want to probe into the hearts of galaxies and see the regions right around the black hole that's accreting material and ultimately shining away as a quasar. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=207 If you want to get the same resolution as you would get from an optical telescope, you need to have your radio dish hundreds of meters, maybe even kilometers across. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=208 Interference is something we’re quite familiar with these days because we get to use noise-canceling headphones. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=209 This process of combining the signals together from different telescopes is called interferometry. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=210 So 2009 is going to be the International Year of Astronomy. And that’s, of course, because it’s four hundred years since the invention of the telescope. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=211 Newton’s theory of light was that it was made of little particles, but later development showed that light could be thought of as waves, and the wavelength of the waves that gives rise to the different colors. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=212 Well, here we’ve got radio telescopes, so these are telescopes designed to pick up radio waves coming from distant objects in the universe and they’re reflecting telescopes because the great thing about Newton’s design of the telescope where the reflector gathers all the different colors in the same way and that goes right out to radio wavelengths. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=213 We’re all familiar with waves on the ocean and the idea of rollers coming in on the seashore. And the wavelength of a wave is the spacing between troughs and the crests in the waves. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=214 That just made me realize that with really quite simple pieces of apparatus you could do exciting things and find out stuff that was way outside our ordinary experience. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=194 The GBT is a spectacular structure. It is the largest, fully steerable radio telescope on the planet. It is one of the largest moving structures on land. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=195 The GBT came about because we had a 300-foot telescope, a 300-foot transit telescope here at Green Bank which at one time was the second largest moveable telescope on the planet. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=556 What’s interesting is that in a very short period of time he goes from being this most private man to being the most public of men in the 1690s, and that is because in 1687 he published the greatest scientific work of all time, the Principia Mathematica. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=557 There are two things that make the evolution of telescopes difficult. One is spherical aberration. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=558 Light is one of the things that many people are writing about and discussing at the time, particularly after Descartes’ work in the late 1630s, and there’s the possibility, that’s important for natural philosophers and astronomers, that you can see further with use of telescopes if you’re an astronomer, or that you can see smaller and smaller things if you’re a natural philosopher with the use of microscopes. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=559 The motivations are things that I think we won’t recover, but we know from an early age he was a loner, he read books that told you how to build things and make things, and mix colors, and he’s fascinated by mixing colors from a very early age. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=560 What Newton has is a great deal of anger, a great deal of talent, and a great deal of ambition, coupled with a great deal of arrogance. When that is put into his framework, his University framework as a young student, its effects are that he wants to compete with everyone else who has ever written in mathematics or natural philosophy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=561 In the 1660s we know that Newton is a devout person, but he doesn’t really engage in serious theological study until the early 1670s, and we know that very quickly he became a heretic. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=562 Newton was born at a time of great revolution, both politically in England and also in terms of science across Europe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=563 There are other people at the time who are trying to build a reflecting telescope, but what Newton’s discovery of the differential refrangibility of colored rays shows to him is that there is a practical possibility of building a reflecting telescope, and he has the ability to do it. He knows how he can do it. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=564 In 1669, Newton wrote a remarkable tract called On Analysis which put him at the forefront of all mathematicians – he was obviously the greatest mathematician by that time who had ever lived, although very few people were aware of this. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=565 We know that Newton did his experiments on prisms in the middle of the 1660s, and we know that in about 1668 he decides that he can do what some of his contemporaries are trying to do and create a telescope that is based on reflection, using a mirror, rather than refraction using a lens. And in 1668 he successfully creates the very first usable reflecting telescope in the world. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=566 I don’t think there were punts until the 19th century, but he did pay an annual sub for something called “bowls and barges” though we don’t know what they are. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=567 Newton seems to be very interested in light in about the second or third year of his time at Cambridge. He does experiments with his eyes which famously involve him putting objects underneath his eyeball to try and deform the shape of his eye. But he also starts looking through prisms, and one of the things he notices one day looking through a prism at a piece of thread that’s colored red at the top and blue at the bottom, is that when you look through a prism at this thread, the two parts of the thread are disaggregated – they’re separated from each other. And that observation is the basis of some of his great discoveries in light. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=568 When Newton publishes his work on light and colors in early 1672, he argues something that nobody, even the ancient Greeks and certainly not his contemporaries had believed possible, which is that white light is composed of all these different rays. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=215 A spectrum is the light from a star that has been broken down into its component colors. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=216 The most powerful tool an astronomer can use is a spectrograph. A spectrograph breaks the light from star or galaxy, or from anything else into its component colors. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=217 I’m standing in the observation car of the great telescope of Birr, called the Leviathan of Birr. It was the largest telescope in the world for 75 years. From 1845 until 1919 it was the world’s largest telescope, and it was built by the third Earl of Rosse. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=218 Lord Rosse had to spend four years working on the mirror. And it was only when he finally had a mirror that he thought suitable for a telescope he began the construction of this great telescope. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=219 The extraordinary thing about the Parsons is that in the nineteenth century - and this is a key to their interest in science - they were not sent away to primary school as such. They were tutored at home. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=220 The reason why Lord Rosse built this telescope, was that two astronomers in particular, Sir William Herschel and Messier, in the late 18th century and early 19th century, had mapped approximately 7,000 areas in the northern hemisphere sky where there appeared to be some glowing illumination. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=221 When this telescope was built in 1845, it was by far the largest telescope in the world. It remained the largest in the world for seventy-five years. It wasn’t until the Wilson telescope on Mount Wilson in 1919 that a larger telescope was built. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=222 Shortly after Einstein had developed his general theory of relativity, there was a problem. It’s the same problem that Newton’s law of gravity has, and any physics student knows that gravity sucks. It always pulls, it never pushes. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=223 Now, if you ask how much energy empty space could have, if you asked a four-year-old how much energy empty space should have, the four-year-old would say ‘none’. A good answer except the four-year-old hasn’t taken quantum mechanics. And the point is that when you allow quantum mechanics to work together with relativity, empty space isn’t empty at all. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=224 The fact that the energy of empty space is almost equal to the energy density of everything else in the universe today is, from a fundamental physics perspective, completely inexplicable. We don’t understand it. And that has caused some people to think of an extreme solution. A solution which, if it’s right, is equally depressing, at least to many physicists like myself. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=225 The weird thing is that, if empty space is expanding exponentially as it does due to this repulsion produced by dark energy, and if empty space maintains a constant amount of energy per unit volume, and the volume is increasing, then it appears that you’re violating the law of conservation of energy – the total energy of the universe seems to be growing exponentially. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=226 The discovery of dark energy was amazing. Now the question that really matters is, what is the dark energy? Is it a cosmological constant, like Einstein predicted, or is it some weird energy of empty space that’s changing in time and then may go away? The reason we care is that - first of all from a fundamental physics perspective - it’s vitally important to know if empty space fundamentally has energy or if this is just some transient that is going to go away. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=227 When dark energy was first discovered – experimentally, observationally – it was discovered by looking at distant exploding stars and measuring, using them to determine the distance to distant galaxies and then measuring their speed and seeing that the expansion of the universe is speeding up. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=228 One of the greatest revolutions in cosmology in the 20th century, if not in the entire history of cosmology, has been the discovery of what we call dark energy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=229 The amazing thing is, our picture of the universe has changed a lot. So you could ask, 'could everything we know today be wrong?' And the answer is, potentially, yes. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=230 Well, welcome to 2009, and the 400th anniversary of the invention of the telescope, which represented for me what science is all about. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=231 In the far, far future, when dark energy dominates the universe completely, all the galaxies that we now see will have moved so far away that we can’t see them – they’ll be moving faster than the speed of light away from us and the rest of the universe will literally disappear and we will live in an island universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=232 So my interest initially was in elementary particle physics, the fundamental structure of matter. And what I ultimately realized was that the universe might be the only laboratory that could ultimately tell us about the fundamental structure of matter. And the bridge at that time was dark matter. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=233 People still sense a bond to the sky and it’s easy to see it. All you have to do is to go out into a dark sky with someone again, let the stars come out, and they’re astonished. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=234 Over the last couple of decades, an extraordinary amount of worldwide interest has been directed at Chichen Itza in northern Yucatan in Mexico, a late Maya site where the Castillo, or the temple of Kukulcan, the feathered serpent god, seems to develop a pattern of light and shadow on the balustrade of its north stairway in the last hour or so before sunset. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=235 In a sense that transformation of perspective has already occurred. It occurred when we first went into space with the very first satellite, and has continued through our further efforts at exploring space both with instruments and of course with ourselves out there on the moon or in the International Space Station, and whatever is yet to come. That has precipitated major changes in the way that we look at the universe and ourselves. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=236 When Galileo first pointed a telescope at the sky and saw craters on the moon, and moons around Jupiter, and phases of Venus, it changed everything. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=237 Griffith Observatory has been open free to the public since 1935 out of Col. Griffith J. Griffith’s desire to see that happen. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=238 There’s no question in my mind that we lose something by losing the sky. That was that ability we had to look at the grandest scale of things and that direct experience that creates a nightly emotion in people is now absent from us. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=239 Our ancient and prehistoric ancestors understood that there was a relationship between the rhythms of the sun and the moon and the stars, and what was taking place on earth that prompted them to pay close attention. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=240 When you’re talking about prehistoric and even ancient astronomy, you run into a problem right away, and that is evidence. This is the unwritten record for the most part and it’s difficult to prove anything. You can only get an inkling of what might have been on people’s minds with respect to the sky by hints that are left in ancient monuments, perhaps like New Grange in Ireland or maybe even Stonehenge in Southern England. Or on the other side of the world, say in a tomb that was built by the first emperor in ancient China. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=241 I am not so sure that we are less scientifically literate than we used to be. A lot of this has to do with image and communication as opposed to the real facts. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=242 We tend to think of that conflict of Galileo very much in terms of the established forces in power at the time, primarily the authority of the church, and really it was the ideological thinking of the church and certain factions within the church as opposed to the whole institution. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=243 New instrumentation like the telescope does not necessarily evaporate old belief. In fact, sometimes it simply adds more detail to someone’s already baroque view of the environment around them. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=244 At the end, what you really want to do as a human is you want to know where you’re coming from and where you’re going. What is the world you are living in? How did the world start and how is it developing? text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=245 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=246 I was a physics student at Berlin University and that was a revolutionary time when students that studied in the mid-60s in Berlin and students had their own ideas of how the university and politically what things should be. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=247 The Institute for Astronomy here in Hawaii is one of the youngest astronomy institutions in the world. Certainly also in the United States. We are less than 40 years old. Our history is closely connected to the two observatories on top of the two big mountains in Hawaii: Haleakala in Maui and here in Mauna Kea, the place where we are just standing here. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=248 Every time in astronomy when a new telescope or a new telescope system came online and has been built, it has led to revolutionary detections of new things that nobody had thought about before. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=249 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=250 As an astronomer with responsibility for the Mauna Kea observatories, I’m most happy to be out here and to greet everybody in the world. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=251 What you see around when you look around in dimensions that is a scientific investment on top of Mauna Kea of $1 billion and I think it’s certainly not an exaggeration to say that the science done here in the last twenty years or so has revolutionized modern astronomy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=252 We are standing here on top of Mauna Kea, one of the major observatories in the world and you may ask the question why do we do astronomy from the ground. The answer is very simple, of course, it would be ideal to do astronomy from space but it’s tremendously expensive. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=253 For a German astronomer to come here to Hawaii to take on the director’s position at an institute here in Hawaii which has a responsibility to operate the observatory here it was quite an interesting challenge to learn about the many issues related to the Mauna Kea observatories. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=254 I think astronomy plays a very, very important role in educating a young generation and motivating a young generation just to be interested in science. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=255 Originally, telescopes were at small research institutions normally connected to universities and they were in small cities where the universities were. For instance, at Munich University where I used to work before the observatory was built outside the city on a little hill where it was dark by that time. But all these cities have grown all the time the observatories connected to universities were in areas where people were living and you had a lot of light pollution. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=256 Pan-STARRS is a new project that the University of Hawaii wants to do and we want to do it with one of the telescopes that you see in the background. Our old 88-inch telescopes. We want to use the site behind us and within the footprints of the existing building. We want to build a new telescope system which has a major goal to take a deep movie of the sky for ten years. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=587 Astronomy has changed our thinking as humans as no other science. Without astronomy you would think you were the center of the world; everything is orbiting around you. Because of astronomy you know that we, in our tiny little planet, orbiting around this tiny little star which we call our Sun are just a side issue in the universe. We are entirely unimportant. We’re just one out of 200 billion stars in our Milky Way. We’re even a side issue in our Milky Way, just on the outskirts. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=257 If you put yourself back in the 1980s, you’ll remember that at that time no planets were known around other stars. Everybody knew that it would be exciting to discover planets, but it was deemed impossible. Planets are too small, they don’t shine by their own energy generation, they don’t yank very strongly gravitationally on their host star, so it was understood that planets couldn’t be detected. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=258 I first fell in love with astronomy as a 14-year-old when my parents bought me a little used telescope that barely worked. But I put it out on the roof of my house in the San Fernanado valley in Los Angeles and I looked up every night and saw something different. My favorite was Saturn. I still, to today, can hardly believe that you can see that jewel in the darkness of space, the ring around Saturn that’s so exquisite. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=259 When the Swiss discovered the planet around 51-PEG, and we, a week later, confirmed it, some remarkable sociology of science took place. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=260 The day may come in our lifetimes when we finally discover the first signs of and intelligent civilization elsewhere in our Milky Way galaxy. And when that happens, its anyone’s guess how our society, how our worldwide community will respond. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=261 One thing that we astronomers pride ourselves in is making use of the laws of physics, chemistry, math, and other laws that allow us to rest our experiments on a pedestal, that seems immutable. And that pedestal involves Newton’s laws of physics, the laws of quantum mechanics and electricity and magnetism. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=262 The future of telescopes is clear, most people don’t know it. We humans are going to build in this century, probably in the next few decades, giant telescopes above the Earth’s atmosphere, composed of multiple mirrors – four, ten, 100 mirrors spread out over our solar system in fact that will simultaneously collect light from distant astronomical objects: quasars, black holes and indeed planets orbiting other stars. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=263 What happened was, I was in my office one day and I received an email from England and somebody said that a newspaper article had appeared in an obscure newspaper for northern England, saying that in the next two days, a team from Geneva, Switzerland, was going to announce the discovery of the first planet ever. A team from Geneva that was going to give a talk at a meeting in Florence, Italy. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=264 I discover planets orbiting other stars. It’s an all-encompassing activity. We use the world’s largest telescopes. And the goal is to try to understand how our solar system with its Sun and its planets, asteroids, comets, rings around those planets, how they all fit into the grand scheme of planetary systems elsewhere in the universe. And ultimately we’re trying to find other planetary systems to determine if our solar system is a rare bird or a common member of a species that proliferates in our universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=265 One thing that people forget is that over the last sixty to seventy years, there have been many, many false claims of the first planet ever found around another star. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=266 The way we find planets around other stars is with a trick, actually. We would love to be able to point the Hubble Space Telescope at a nearby star like Alpha Centauri and just stare at the star, looking for a little tiny dot of light that orbits the star. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=267 When I finally got my PhD, I was looking for some research to do and I struggled. For about a year I couldn’t find any good research project to pursue. And really, the test of a good scientist is whether they can think of new ideas that can then allow you to go out, make observations, test new theories. But I couldn’t think of any. And I remember one morning in Pasadena, California, taking a shower, lingering for half an hour under the water, realizing what bad shape I was in for my career. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=268 My wish for the International Year of Astronomy is that everybody gets a chance to look through a telescope, everybody gets a chance to realize that our Earth and our solar system is just one small part of an enormous universe, inconceivably large universe of which we are a part. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=269 When I first thought that Paul Butler and I would hunt for planets, we had two obvious challenges. I needed funding to do it and I needed telescope time. I had neither. So I wrote a proposal to hunt for planets, and I knew that people wouldn’t believe that we could actually attempt, never mind actually succeed at finding them. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=270 We’ve built a new telescope that I’m so excited about, I can barely keep my clothes on. It’s a 2.4 meter telescope, telescope mirror diameter 2.4 meters, as big as the Hubble Space Telescope. Designed specifically to hunt for Earth-like planets. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=271 The discovery of the telescope I think has changed humanity in two profound ways. One is that we now realize that you can now understand nature, from the microscopic to the cosmic by experiment. You can pose a question, make observations, listen to your data, interpret your data and generate conceptual models of how the universe works from the tiniest subsystems in an atom to the galaxies of which our universe is composed. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=272 My hero and inspiration continues to be Carl Sagan. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=273 Of course, people have known for ages that turbulence in the atmosphere was a problem; even Isaac Newton knew it. And in 1956, an astronomer in California said, whose name was Horace Babcock, said, I think we can find a way to take away the bad effects of the turbulence. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=274 Right now the state of our technology on the ground on these big 8 or 10 meter telescopes is that we can only correct images that were taken in infrared light, which is light that is redder than red. Your eye doesn’t see it. Hubble, on the other hand, not only looks at infrared light, it looks at light that is in the visible and even in the ultraviolet. And the state of the art today is that adaptive optic systems on the ground can’t correct light that’s in the visible and certainly not the ultraviolet. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=275 Because you can see very clearly with adaptive optics, there are things that we can make discoveries on that just literally couldn’t be seen before they were just blurred out. One of them, for example has been using the one thousand or two thousand stars that are closest to the center of our galaxy, following their orbits around what we know now is a central black hole in our galaxy and measuring the mass of the back hole, which it turns out to be a few million times massive than the Sun. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=276 Adaptive optics today is used in a number of different places besides astronomy. Obviously if you have anything that blurs an image, you can use something like adaptive optics to unblur it. One of the groups of people we are working most closely with are using adaptive optics to look into the human eye, the living human eye and image individual cells on the retina. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=277 There were two astronomy groups that led the way [in pioneering adaptive optics]. One was at the European Southern Observatory in Chile and the other was at the University of Hawaii telescope on Mauna Kea volcano in Hawaii. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=278 One of the things that astronomers have to live with is blurring of any image in the telescope because there is turbulence in the atmosphere. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=279 One of the exciting areas, I think, in fifteen or twenty years will be using adaptive optics on telescopes in space. And you might ask, well why do we need that? There is no turbulence up there. But I think what is going to happen is that people are going to want to launch bigger and bigger telescopes into space. And to keep the weight down, to make them possible to launch, you have to make them of basically flimsier and flimsier materials. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=280 When I was eight years old, I went to my first summer camp and one of the counselors who was the nature counselor, the science counselor, had a little telescope and pointed it at the moon and I looked through it and I saw these mountains on the moon. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=281 We are all very excited about the International Year of Astronomy. The telescope technology has gone unbelievably past what Galileo or his colleagues imagined and as scientists we find the things we look at extremely exciting, not just from a scientific point of view but from a human point of view. Thinking about things that are in the distant universe that are going on thousands of years ago and I hope the world enjoys it as much as we do. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=282 The principles of optics say that the larger the telescope the more clearly it should be able to see and that is called the refraction limit. So, larger telescopes see more clearly. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=283 The thing that has made adaptive optics come much more into the mainstream today is that you can now make your own star with a laser beam. So, you can point the laser at exactly the galaxy that you want to look at, use the light from that laser beam to measure the turbulence in the atmosphere and then you can look almost anywhere. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=284 In the 50's there was no way technology was going to be able to do all these measurements that fast. But by the late 1980's, it started to become available and the first people who really implement this were in the US military who wanted to image satellites. They wanted to know, for example, if they saw the Russians launch a satellite, what it was doing, what kind of satellite was it. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=285 People moved relatively late in the game to put telescopes on mountain tops; in fact, Lick Observatory on Mt. Hamilton near San Jose, California, was, I think, the first substantial mountain top observatory and that was just in the latter part of the 19th century. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=286 You may ask on a calm night when the sky is beautiful and still, is there still turbulence? And you can actually see the turbulence if you look at the stars and you see them twinkling. And it’s the same factor that makes the stars twinkle, as it does that makes astronomer’s images blur. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=287 So, where does the turbulence in the air come from? That’s a good question. One way to make turbulence is to have what’s called a sheer flow. You have wind going in opposite directions and the layer in between the parts of the atmosphere are going in opposite directions gets turbulent. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=288 One of the things that we hope to do with adaptive optics in the future is to gradually see over wider and wider regions. And one of the big advances will be on the Gemini South telescope that’s in Chile, where they are installing something with a long name: multi-conjugate adaptive optics, which will see over somewhat of a wider region than systems do today. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=289 This was the start of a very big stimulating domain, because it was the very first one, but today we have more than maybe 300 planets, discovered today. So you see that in twelve years, thirteen years, we have discovered a huge number of objects, and these objects reveal one unexpected picture – is the diversity of extrasolar planetary systems. The solar system is by no means a unique model of what we have in the universe. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=290 For the moment we have basically three techniques – we have the radial velocity, and this reveals more than two hundred planets. We have the transit, a few dozen and microlensing. But in the future, new techniques will arrive. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=291 After these fourteen years of discoveries of extrasolar planets, we know a lot on the orbits, the distribution of orbits. But what is the most exciting point today is the study of the characteristics of planets. We have the possibility with satellites to study the internal composition of planets. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=292 Today we are in Florence. Florence for me is a very special town because it’s the place where twelve years ago we announced the discovery of 51-PEG. 51-PEG is the first planet orbiting a star very similar to our Sun. So, it was a conference devoted to study the relationship between the Sun and the other stars, so it was a good place to make the announcement. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=293 By some aspect, Galileo was a leader of the field because he discovered the rotation of moons of Jupiter, and this was a huge impact in the development of astronomy, because it was really the proof that something equivalent to the solar system exists around the place, in fact, around the planet. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=294 All discoveries of the planets have been indirect. What does this mean? We have not seen the planet but we have detected the influence of the planet on the star. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=295 You have two different kinds of interest. If you discover that interest from astronomers, it’s okay, you have that global satisfaction to have a new feel of astronomy starting, and the possibility to understand the formation of planetary systems and so on, and maybe in the long term to enter into the condition of life formation. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=296 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=297 Today we have beautiful question facing us. So I hope that after 2009, young people will still conserve the same curiosity to explore the universe and we will have still big questions to answer. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=298 At the present time, the most interesting part of my work is to search for very low mass planets, to try to find a real analog of the Earth. And if we combine detection by Kepler and the precision of more instrumentation, I am absolutely sure that we have the capabilities which we need. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=299 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=300 Transcript in progress. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=301 I was really interested by natural science, so I did studies in physics, and then after theoretical physics, but I was absolutely interested in any kind of science. And at the end of my studies, I started to work at the university in astronomy, but I can easily imagine to have the same enthusiasm for a different domain of science, for some geophysics, oceanography and so on. So in some sense it’s a little piece of chance. text/html http://www.400years.org/es/video/video.php?k=302 Why we are interested in Earth-like analogs, an Earth-type planet analog? 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